Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was an influential Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer whose ideas about politics, education, and human nature had a profound impact on the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and Romanticism. He emphasized the importance of feeling, natural goodness, and individual freedom.
1. The ‘Noble Savage’ and the State of Nature
Rousseau idealized the ‘state of nature’, the hypothetical condition of humankind before the development of civilization and society. He believed that man is naturally good, free, and equal (‘the noble savage’), but becomes corrupted by society, private property, and inequality.
In his ‘Discourse on Inequality’ (1755), he argued that the development of agriculture, property, and social structures led to jealousy, competition, and the loss of natural freedom and authenticity.
2. The Social Contract (Du Contrat Social)
In his most famous political work, ‘The Social Contract’ (1762), Rousseau explored how people could form a legitimate political community without completely surrendering their natural freedom. His solution was the ‘social contract’.
Individuals hereby give up their natural freedom in favor of the ‘general will’ (volonté générale), the collective will of the people aimed at the common good. Laws are only legitimate if they express this general will, and sovereignty lies with the people. This idea was highly influential in the development of modern democracy.
3. The General Will (Volonté Générale)
The concept of the ‘general will’ is crucial but also complex. It is not simply the sum of all individual wills (volonté de tous), but the will directed towards the common good of society.
According to Rousseau, the general will can never err, but individuals can be mistaken about what constitutes the common good. Forcing individuals to obey the laws derived from the general will is, according to Rousseau, ‘forcing them to be free’, because true freedom lies in obeying laws one has prescribed for oneself through the collective will.
4. ‘Émile, or On Education’
Rousseau’s book ‘Émile’ (1762) was a groundbreaking work on education. He advocated for a ‘natural’ upbringing, allowing the child to develop according to their own pace and interests, protected from the corrupting influences of society.
The educator should guide the child and provide experiences rather than imposing knowledge. The emphasis is on learning by doing, sensory experience, and moral development through natural consequences. Although controversial (especially his ideas about the education of girls), ‘Émile’ had a major influence on modern pedagogy.
5. Emphasis on Feeling and Authenticity
Unlike many Enlightenment thinkers who emphasized reason, Rousseau placed great value on feeling, emotion, and inner authenticity. He believed that feeling is a more reliable guide for moral action than purely rational thought.
His autobiographical work ‘Confessions’ is an early example of introspective literature in which he writes candidly about his own feelings, mistakes, and experiences. This focus on inner life and subjective experience foreshadowed Romanticism.
6. A Life of Wandering and Controversy
Rousseau’s life was turbulent and full of contradictions. Born in Geneva, he lost his mother shortly after birth and had an unstable childhood. He wandered through Europe, holding various jobs (engraver, lackey, secretary, music teacher) and relationships.
His radical ideas constantly brought him into conflict with authorities (both ecclesiastical and secular) and other philosophers (like Voltaire). His books were banned and burned in Paris and Geneva, and he frequently had to flee.
7. Contradictions in His Life
Despite his advocacy for natural education, Rousseau sent all five of his own children, whom he had with his partner Thérèse Levasseur (whom he married late in life), to the foundling hospital. He later defended this by stating he was too poor and unstable to care for them.
This contradiction between his philosophical ideals and his personal life has often been criticized and raises questions about his character.
8. Influence on the French Revolution
Rousseau’s ideas about popular sovereignty, the general will, equality, and freedom had an enormous influence on the thinkers and leaders of the French Revolution. The revolutionaries saw his work as a justification for overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic based on the will of the people.
Terms like ‘social contract’ and ‘general will’ were widely used, although his ideas were sometimes misused to justify authoritarian rule (such as during the Reign of Terror).
9. Composer and Music Theorist
Besides his work as a philosopher and writer, Rousseau was also a composer and music theorist. He wrote several operas, of which ‘Le Devin du Village’ (The Village Soothsayer) was successful, and developed a new system of music notation.
He also became involved in the ‘Querelle des Bouffons’, a debate about the merits of Italian versus French opera styles, defending the simplicity and naturalness of the Italian style.
10. Paranoia and Later Years
In his later years, Rousseau became increasingly suspicious and paranoid. He felt persecuted by his enemies and former friends (like Diderot and Hume) and increasingly withdrew from public life.
His final works, such as ‘Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques’ and ‘Reveries of a Solitary Walker’, are introspective and testify to his sense of alienation and his search for inner peace amidst a hostile world. He died in Ermenonville, France.
